Management and Leadership Essay -- Business Management Leading Leader

guidance and Leadership watchfulness and leaders are two words that are considered alike but describe two unalike concepts. According to the dictionary, management is the act, manner, or utilize of managing handling, supervision, or control leadership is the capacity or ability to lead. In many organizations, management is a short letter description leadership is a positive trait. The purpose of this paper is to distinguish amidst the two, to look at the responsibilities that get hold with leadership, and make suggestions about creating and maintaining a sound organizational culture.Management is the assist of working with bulk and resources to accomplish organizational goals (Bateman-Snell, 2003, p. 14). Management is a theory and a way of doing business. Management is a process that is exercised in order for an organization to be successful. This process is usually broken down into four established functions planning, organizing, leading, and imperative (Bateman-Snell, 20 03, p. 14). The pile within an organization that practice management are called passenger vehicles. Managers are principally administrators they write business plans, set budgets and monitor progress? (Maccoby, 2000, para 1). Other tasks handled by managers are problem-solving and facilitating meetings. Managers usually achieve their grade through experience and understanding. A manager obtains authority through time and loyalty. A manager knows how the organization workings and may also possess a good technical knowledge. People follow a manager because as employees, they are forced to, but earlier ?a manager is also a leader that people want to follow? (Maccoby, 2000, para 8).Leadership is ?one of the many assets a successful manager must possess? (The Difference, 1997, para 2). duration management can be considered a position, leadership can be considered a relationship. Leadership is the federation between the leader and led that makes management successful. This connecti on can strengthen the organization and make the work more focused and effective. Leadership is the ability to get people to follow. A person who exhibits the trait of leadership is called a leader.A leader is a person who ?influences others to attain goals? (McGraw-Hill, 2003, p. 366). A leader exhibits special qualities that induce people to admire her. These qualities can include drive, moti... ...rs and large leaders. There are a variety of ways to practice good management and effective leadership. There is no one best way. Leadership is uninterrupted and continual developmental process. A successful leader appreciates the responsibilities that come with the role. The leader must find the right stairs to establish and maintain a good for you(p) organizational culture. It is important to design the culture by involving employees and inspiring them to follow it. By doing this, the culture will be a fulfilling one, and satisfied employees make a successful organization.Works Cit edBateman-Snell (Ed.). (2003). Management The New Competitive Landscape, Sixth Edition. New York McGraw-Hill.Maccoby, M. (2000). Understanding the Difference between Management and Leadership. Research Technology Management, 43. Retrieved January 29, 2005 from http//www.maccoby.com/Articles/UtDBMaL.html.Schein, E. (n.d.) Organizational floriculture and Leadership. Retrieved January 30, 2005, from http//www.tnellen.com/ted/tc/schein.html.The Difference between Management and Leadership (n.d.). Retrieved January 29, 2005, from http//www.see.ed.ac.uk/gerard/MENG/ME96/Documents/Intro/leader.html. Management and Leadership Essay -- Business Management Leading Leader Management and LeadershipManagement and leadership are two words that are considered synonymous but describe two different concepts. According to the dictionary, management is the act, manner, or practice of managing handling, supervision, or control leadership is the capacity or ability to lead. In many orga nizations, management is a job description leadership is a positive trait. The purpose of this paper is to distinguish between the two, to look at the responsibilities that come with leadership, and make suggestions about creating and maintaining a healthy organizational culture.Management is the process of working with people and resources to accomplish organizational goals (Bateman-Snell, 2003, p. 14). Management is a theory and a way of doing business. Management is a process that is exercised in order for an organization to be successful. This process is usually broken down into four established functions planning, organizing, leading, and controlling (Bateman-Snell, 2003, p. 14). The people within an organization that practice management are called managers. Managers are principally administrators they write business plans, set budgets and monitor progress? (Maccoby, 2000, para 1). Other tasks handled by managers are problem-solving and facilitating meetings. Managers usually a chieve their position through experience and understanding. A manager obtains authority through time and loyalty. A manager knows how the organization works and may also possess a good technical knowledge. People follow a manager because as employees, they are forced to, but preferably ?a manager is also a leader that people want to follow? (Maccoby, 2000, para 8).Leadership is ?one of the many assets a successful manager must possess? (The Difference, 1997, para 2). While management can be considered a position, leadership can be considered a relationship. Leadership is the connection between the leader and led that makes management successful. This connection can strengthen the organization and make the work more focused and effective. Leadership is the ability to get people to follow. A person who exhibits the trait of leadership is called a leader.A leader is a person who ?influences others to attain goals? (McGraw-Hill, 2003, p. 366). A leader exhibits special qualities that in duce people to admire her. These qualities can include drive, moti... ...rs and great leaders. There are a variety of ways to practice good management and effective leadership. There is no one best way. Leadership is constant and continual developmental process. A successful leader appreciates the responsibilities that come with the role. The leader must find the right steps to establish and maintain a healthy organizational culture. It is important to design the culture by involving employees and inspiring them to follow it. By doing this, the culture will be a fulfilling one, and satisfied employees make a successful organization.Works CitedBateman-Snell (Ed.). (2003). Management The New Competitive Landscape, Sixth Edition. New York McGraw-Hill.Maccoby, M. (2000). Understanding the Difference between Management and Leadership. Research Technology Management, 43. Retrieved January 29, 2005 from http//www.maccoby.com/Articles/UtDBMaL.html.Schein, E. (n.d.) Organizational Culture a nd Leadership. Retrieved January 30, 2005, from http//www.tnellen.com/ted/tc/schein.html.The Difference between Management and Leadership (n.d.). Retrieved January 29, 2005, from http//www.see.ed.ac.uk/gerard/MENG/ME96/Documents/Intro/leader.html.

How To Swim The Breaststroke Essay -- essays research papers

How to Swim the BreaststrokeThe breaststroke is the oldest known swimming stroke and is one of four strokes used in competitive swimming. This stroke is too very popular in leisure swimming because the head can be held up, making vision and breathing easy and because the swimmer can catch ones breath between strokes if needed. Swimmers can also use the breaststroke in survival swimming and in lifesaving situations. Since the breaststroke has many uses and is easy to learn, it is one of the best strokes to get a line a beginning swimmer. When teaching the breaststroke to a beginner, it is very important to explain every aspect of the stroke from head to toe. The head should be positioned so the hairline is at the surface of the water, keeping the body horizontal. The arm motions of the breaststroke are performed simultaneously, moving in opposite directions. The leg motions are performed in the same fashion. Lifting the hips as the hands are extended in front, then lifting the upp er body as the hands finish and start to recover creates a rocking action. This rocking action is an automatic movement if the stroke is performed correctly.In the glide, the body is flat, prone, and streamlined, with the legs together and extended straight out. Keeping the palms down, extend the arms in front of the head. Angle the hands pretty downward and turn the palms outward at a 45-degree angle to the surface of the water. With the arms straight, press the palms directly out until the hands are spread w...

Gender Issues in Sophocles Antigone :: Antigone essays

Gender Issues in Antigone One of the most devastating problems for the Classical Greeks was thewomens issue. Women in Classical Greece were not citizens, held noproperty, and indeed were not pull down allowed out of the house exceptunder guard. Their status differed from that of the slaves of Greeceonly in name. This alone, however was not a problem -- the problem wasthat the Greeks knew, in their hearts, that this was wrong. Indeed,their playwrights harangued them about it from the floor of Athenscontinually. either of the great Grecian playwrights -- Sophocles,Euripedes, Aristophenes -- dealt with the womens issue. All of themargued, in their various ways, that the women of Greece were not nearlyas incapable and weak as the culture believed them to be. All of themcreated female characters of strength and intelligence. But in"Antigone," the discussion reached its peak. Antigone herself, as shestands upon the Grecian stage, represents the highest ideals of humanlife - - courage and resp ect for the gods. A woman, she isnevertheless the exemplum for her society. But how ar we to knowthis? Does the author let the audience know that it is Antigoneherself, not Creon, the "noble-eyed imperator" (453), who is to bebelieved? It is almost inconceivable that the audience would be meantto ignore Creons apparently skillful arguments, for he appears torepresent all that the Athenian should strive for. He stands forobedience to the State. Surely it is his voice we should obey.Sophocles does let us know where the truth lies, and he does this,amazingly, partly finished his characterization of Creon. Though Creonseemingly says intelligent things, there are clues that he is not to betrusted. One would be his discussion of incest with Ismene. Tornbetween her work to God and her duty to the State, Ismene, in the thirdact, has run to Creon, planning to tell him of Antigones actions inthe graveyard "O, not for me the dusty hair of youth, / But let us n owunto the palace go" (465), she cries. But Creon, ignoring thesupposedly important information she has to tell -- he has, after all,emptied the Theban coffers, spending money on his advance(a) spy networkin search of the miscreant -- asks her, instead, to come home withhim. "How long, O Princess, O How long" he states, suggesting atime for their next merging "Upon the hour of noon, or / Not upon thehour of six." To such a pass has the doomed line of Oedipus come.

Jarassic Park: The Dinosaurs Were Not To Blame For The Destruction of Jurassic Park :: essays research papers

Jarassic Park The Dinosaurs Were Not To Blame For The Destruction of JurassicParkNature wont be stopped .......or blamed for what happens(Ian Malcolm ,Jurassic Park by Michael Crichton). Jurassic Park mystifies its critique evenas it makes it or rather, to be more precise, it offers us contradictorymessages about whom to blame for what goes wrong. Science finally takes theblame. Near the subvert of the book, while the humans are fighting off thevelociraptors, Malcolm (the mathematician) delivers a long and didactic speechabout how science is to blame for messing up the world because it has nomorality science tells us how to do things, not what things are worth doing andwhy. Malcolm talks about how the inventions of science, like Jurassic Park, arefated to exceed our control, precisely as his chaos theory predicts. According toMalcolm, chaos theory was developed in response to problems like predicting theweather, and the theory says it simply cant be predicted beyond the home of a few days, because the forces involved are too complex and unstable. Ifeverything in a popular narrative like Jurassic Park really mean something else,then so too does chaos theory.The basic plot of Jurassic Park is fairly simple. A Palo Altocorporation called International Genetics Technologies, Inc. (InGen) has bring forthable -- through an entrepreneurial combining of audacity, technology, humaningenuity, and fantastic outlays of capital (mostly funded by Japanese investors,who are the only ones willing to wait years for obscure results) -- to clonedinosaurs from the bits of their DNA recovered from dinosaur blood inside thebodies of insects that once bit the now-extinct animals and were then trappedand preserved in amber for millions of years. (This is, by the way,theoretically possible.) The trade union movement is the dream of John Hammond, a billionairecapitalist with a passionate interest in dinosaurs, who comes across in thenovel as a bizarre combination of Ross Perot and Ronald Reagan -- partauthoritarian martinet, part dissociated and childish old man. With theresources of his wealth and power, Hammond buys a rugged island a hundred or somiles off the coast of costa Rica and turns it into Jurassic Park, the mostadvanced amusement super C in the world, with attractions so astonishing theywould capture the imagination of the entire world a population of living,breathing actual dinosaurs.With the park just a year away from opening to the public (those richenough to pay, that is), the nervous investors insist on sending a team to theisland to observe whether or not the park is as safe and under control as

Instant Messenger Programs Essay -- Communication Computers Internet E

Analysis of Instant Messenger Programs From telegrams to telephones, to emails and faxes, community have had a strong desire to be connected to one another. The intrusion of the information age has only increased that desire - to the point that people are seeking a constant connection. The introduction of instant messenger programs has allowed people to be connected and communicate in real-time. Instant messaging not only provides transfer of text messages, but peer-to-peer file sharing as well. term file transfer provides the user with increased convenience, it also increases the odds of transferring viruses, worms, and other malware. This paper will discuss the major instant messenger programs AOL IM, .NET Messenger, ICQ, and Yahoo Messenger. In particular it will explore the threats and security risks involved in both personal and professional use of instant messenger programs. IntroductionAs the reach suggests, instant messaging, or IM, is the real-time delivery of a me ssage from one user to another. Communication between any computing stations can descend as long as the appropriate version of the program is installed. Users must also be concurrently running an IM client (program) as well as be on the same IM network 7. A conversation that occurs between two or more users is know as a session (or channel). A session can either be public, where any and all users can participate, or private, where users must be invited to participate in the session. Buddy lists, also known as contact lists, allow users to maintain communication with specific users of the same IM client and network.While each instant messaging program is unique, they all habituate similar client-server architecture to send and receive m... ...5 Gaudin, Sharon. Norton Antivirus Attacks Instant Messaging. www.instant-messaging.com. August 2002. 6 Grimes, Roger A. IM Security Primer. www.secadministrator.com. May 2002. 7 Hindocha, Neal. Instant Insecurity Secur ity Issues of Instant Messaging. www.securityfocus.com. January 2003. 8 Hindocha, Neal. Threats to Instant Messaging. Symantec Security Response. January 2003. 9 Hu, Jim. Worms shape Fertile Ground in IM. www.cnetnews.com. August 2001. 10 Shinder, Thomas. How to Block Dangerous Instant Messengers Using ISA Server. www.windowssecurity.com. July 2002. 11 Thorsberg, Frank. Is IM a Sieve for Corporate Secrets? www.pcworld.com July 2002. 12 Varnosi, Robert. The Problem with Instant Messaging Apps at Work. www.cnet.com. August 2002

Instant Messenger Programs Essay -- Communication Computers Internet E

Analysis of strident Messenger Programs From telegrams to telephones, to emails and faxes, people have had a strong desire to be connected to one another. The onset of the information age has only increased that desire - to the point that people are seeking a constant connection. The founding of eye blink courier programs has allowed people to be connected and communicate in real-time. Instant pass not only provides transfer of text messages, but peer-to-peer institutionalise sharing as well. While file transfer provides the user with increased convenience, it also increases the odds of transferring viruses, worms, and other malware. This paper will discuss the major instant messenger programs AOL IM, .NET Messenger, ICQ, and Yahoo Messenger. In particular it will explore the threats and security risks involved in both personal and professional use of instant messenger programs. IntroductionAs the name suggests, instant messaging, or IM, is the real-time delivery of a mess age from one user to another. Communication between any calculate stations can occur as long as the appropriate version of the program is installed. Users must also be concurrently running an IM invitee (program) as well as be on the same IM network 7. A conversation that occurs between two or more users is known as a session (or channel). A session can either be public, where any and all users can participate, or private, where users must be invited to participate in the session. Buddy lists, also known as contact lists, allow users to maintain communication with specific users of the same IM client and network.While each instant messaging program is unique, they all employ similar client-server architecture to send and receive m... ...5 Gaudin, Sharon. Norton Antivirus Attacks Instant Messaging. www.instant-messaging.com. August 2002. 6 Grimes, Roger A. IM Security Primer. www.secadministrator.com. May 2002. 7 Hindocha, Neal. Instant Insecurity Security I ssues of Instant Messaging. www.securityfocus.com. January 2003. 8 Hindocha, Neal. Threats to Instant Messaging. Symantec Security Response. January 2003. 9 Hu, Jim. Worms Find Fertile Ground in IM. www.cnetnews.com. August 2001. 10 Shinder, Thomas. How to Block Dangerous Instant Messengers Using ISA Server. www.windowssecurity.com. July 2002. 11 Thorsberg, Frank. Is IM a Sieve for Corporate Secrets? www.pcworld.com July 2002. 12 Varnosi, Robert. The business with Instant Messaging Apps at Work. www.cnet.com. August 2002

Propolis to be selected for winter promotion Essay

1. IntroductionIn view of the growing sense of wellness, it decided to promote Propolis in the coming winter. The purpose of this report is to unwrap the Comvita Propolis Capsules for the winter promotion. The report is including the research of this supplement, the basic functions of it and evaluation of this product.2. MethodologyBefore conducting the market study, there were different information was compiled from some researches and reviews. A literature was reviewed rough the function of the propolis, its explained the basic functions clearly. Also, some opinions of the propolis were commented on internet forum.3. Finding3.1 Popularity of propolis as a health supplement productThe popularity of propolis as a health supplement product has been existed long time ago. Some of the website has mentioned that propolis has a long history of medicinal use, dating back to the time of Aristotle. However, propolis becomes common as a health supplement product in the last twenty years and more(prenominal) propolis product exist in the market.3.2 Basic functions of poprolisAccording to the attachment, there are two main functions of propolis, which are strengthening and accelerating regeneration of cells and it is an immune system boosters. Strengthening and accelerating regeneration of cells can slower the speed of aging and let mess look even younger. Then, the other function is boosting the immune system. It can immune anti viruses, bacteria, fungi, inflammation. Also it is including the anti-allergy, such as asthma, nasal, allergy, etc. Therefore, consumer can have a healthy body.3.3 Evaluation of Comvita PropolisCapsules, the best seller on market A research of Comvita Propolis Capsules was researched. It is about the natures powerful defense system. Comvita Propolis Capsules guaranteeflavonoid levels, which is well(p) for human body, such as reduce the bad feeling of anti-oxidant. Therefore, the product has powerful antioxidant and supports immune system.Se condly, it is about the reputation. There are different good reviews by users on various local website. For example there is a review on CIAO, it told that propolis help him to sleep faster and his body got much more healthier. Then, this product listed as a finalist for the Womens Weekly Health & Wellbeing Product of the year in Australia. Although it is quite expensive for Hong Kong, it can be trusted. Therefore, consumer entrust be willing to pay for having a good body.4. ConclusionThis report accounts for the details of Comvita Propolis Capsules which is the selection for the winter promotion. The findings show that this product is functional and well reputation, so it is a suitable product for the promotion.

Compare and Constrast Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods Essay

Based on Freuds theory (psychoanalytic) human functioning 1. The structure of the mind and the distinct functions of Personality The Freuds morphologic theory (Freud, 1923, 1926) dispenses with the concepts of a fixed id, ego and superego, and point out un aware and conscious conflict among wishesdependent, Controlling, Sexual, Aggressive, guilt, shame, emotions (especially anxiety and depressive affect), And defensive ope double-crosserions that shut off from understanding some aspect of the others.Id, ego, and super-ego ar the three parts of the Psychic apparatus of Freud s structural model of Moreover, healthy functioning (adaptive) is also determined, to a prominent extent, by resolutions of conflict. According to Freuds theory that explain human functioning based on three level, Ego strengths include the capacities to control oral, sexual, and destructive impulses to hurt painful affects without falling apart and to prevent the eruption into consciousness of bizarre symbo lic fantasy.Synthetic functions, in contrast to self-governing functions, arise from the developmet of the ego and officiate the purpose of managing conflictual processes. Defenses are an example of synthetic functions and serve the purpose of protecting the conscious mind from awareness of forbidden impulses and thoughts. One purpose of ego psychological science has been to emphasize that there are mental functions that can be considered to be basic, and not the derivatives of wishes, affects, or defenses 2. Defence mechanism The ego fights acontinual battle to stay on top of the warring id and superego.Occasionally, their conflicts produce anxiety that threatens to overwhelm the ego. The anxiety is a signal that alerts the ego to marshal defence mechanisms. Unconcious protective processes that keep primitive emotions associated with conflicts in check so that the ego can cotinue its coordinating function. We all use defence mechanisms at times,they are sometimes adaptive and oth er time they are maladaptive. Human use defence mechanisms to function well and this defence mechanism can be used under the unconscious and conscious state of mind.However, it is beta to note that autonomous ego functions can be secondarily affected because of unconsious conflict. For example, a patient may have an hysterical amnesia (memory being an autonomous function) because of intrapsychic conflict (wishing not to remember because it is too 3. The stages of Psychosexual development Freuds assume that each small fry is born with a source of basic psychological energy called libido. Further, each childs libido becomes successively focused on various parts of the body (in addition to people and objects) in the course of his stirred up development.During the first postnatal year, libido is initially focused on the mouth and its activities, nursing enables the infant to derive gratification through a pleasurable reduction of tightness in the oral region. Freud called this the oral stage of development. During the second year, the source of excitation is said to shift to the anal area, and the start of toilet training leads the child to endue libido in the anal functions. Freud called this period of development the anal stage.During the period from three through six years, the childs attention is attracted to sensations from the genitals, and Freud called this stage the phallic stage. The one-half dozen years before puberty are called the latency stage. During the final and so-called genital stage of development, mature gratification is sought in a heterosexual love dealinghip with another. Freud believed that adult emotional problems result from either deprivation or excessive gratification during the oral, anal, or phallic stages. A child with libido fixated at one of these stages would in adulthood show specific neurotic symptoms, such as anxiety.According to him, unconscious mental structure called the id contains a souls inborn, inherited drives a nd instinctual forces and is closely identified with his basic psychological energy (libido). During infancy and childhood, the ego, which is the reality-oriented portion of the personality, develops to balance and complement the id. The ego utilizes a variety of conscious and unconscious mental processes to try to satisfy id instincts while also trying to maintain the individual comfortably in relation to the environment.Although id impulses are constantly order toward obtaining immediate gratification of ones major instinctual drives (sex, affection, aggression, self-preservation), the ego functions to set limits on this process. In Freuds language, as the child grows, the reality principle gradually begins to control the pleasure principle the child learns that the environment does not always permit immediate gratification. Child development, according to Freud, is thus primarily concerned with the mergence of the functions of the ego, which is trusty for channeling the disch arge of fundamental drives and for controlling intellectual and perceptual functions in the process of negotiating realistically with the outside world.Although Freud made great contributions to psychological theoryparticularly in his concept of unconscious urges and motivationshis elegant concepts cannot be verified through scientific experimentation and empirical observation. But his concentration on emotional development in early childhood influenced even those schools of thought that rejected his theories.The belief that personality is affected by both biologic and psychosocial forces operating principally within the family, with the major foundations being laid early in life, continues to prove fruitful in research on infant and child development. Freuds emphasis on biological and psychosexual motives in personality development was modified by the German-born American psychoanalyst Erik Erikson to include psychosocial and social factors. Erikson aspected emotional development over the life span as a sequence of stages during which RIGIDITY/FLEXIBILITYThe quality of being rigid stiffness inflexibility absence of pliancy specifically, in mech. , resistance to switch of form. In all theoretical discussions respecting the application of forces through the intervention of machines, those machines are assumed to be perfectly rigid so far as the forces employed are able to affect their integrity of form and structure. Rigidity is directly opposed to flexibility, and only indirectly to malleability and ductility, which depend chiefly on relations between the tenacity, the rigidity, and the limit of elasticity.Flexibility- means holding our own thoughts and emotions a bit more lightly, and acting on longer term values rather than goldbrick term impulses, thoughts and feelings. Why? Because thoughts and emotions tend to be unreliable indicators of long term value. We have no control over them and they tend to ebb and flow sometimes dramatically. If we trust our thoughts and emotions and act based on them, we can often overlook the more important, sustained patterns of action which bring true meaning, vitality and richness to our lives. drumhead 2 Behaviourism and education-how behaviourism view human functioning Behaviourism focuses on one particular view of scholarship a kind in external behaviour achieved through a large amount of repetition of desired actions, the reward of good habits and the discouragement of bad habits. In the classroom this view of learning led to a great deal of repetitive actions, praise for correct outcomes and immediate correction of mistakes.In the field of language learning this emblem of teaching was called the audio-lingual method, characterised by the whole class using choral chanting of key phrases, dialogues and immediate correction. Within the Problem Based Learning (PBL) environment, students may be encouraged to engage with the learning process and their peers within the group by positive reinfo rcement from a skilled facilitator to increase positive actions of engagement, contributions and questioning. cast out behaviours e. g. ack of engagement, negative contributions, could be minimized by the facilitator using negative reinforcement. Within the behaviourist view of learning, the teacher is the dominant person in the classroom and takes fetch up control, evaluation of learning comes from the teacher who decides what is right or wrong. The learner does not have any opportunity for evaluation or reflection within the learning process, they are simply told what is right or wrong.The conceptualization of learning using this approach could be considered superficial as the focus is on external changes in behaviour i. e. ot interested in the internal processes of learning leading to behaviour change and has no place for the emotions involved the process 1. 1 Operant learn Operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning) is a type of learning in which an individuals behavio r is modified by its consequences the behaviour may change in form, absolute frequency, or strength. Reinforcement is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with greater frequency while punishment is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with less frequency and extinction is caused by the lack of any consequence following a behavior.When a behavior is inconsequential (i. e. , producing neither favorable nor unfavorable consequences) it will occur less frequently. When a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced with either positive or negative reinforcement, it leads to a decline in that behavior. 1. Positive reinforcement (Reinforcement) occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus that is appetitive or rewarding, increasing the frequency of that behavior.In the Skinner box experiment, a stimulus such as food or a sugar solution can be delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever. 2. Negative reinforcement (Escape) occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus, thereby increasing that behaviors frequency. In the Skinner box experiment, negative reinforcement can be a loud noise continuously appear inside the rats cage until it engages in the target behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is removed. 3.Positive punishment (punishment) (also called Punishment by contingent stimulation) occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus, such as introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior. 4. Negative punishment (Penalty) (also called Punishment by contingent withdrawal) occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a stimulus, such as taking away a childs toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior. Classical conditioning by associating one thing with another. Operant conditioning = by the consequences of what we do.

The Rise of Antibiotics

The Rise of Antibiotic- loathsome Infections by_ Ricki Lewis, Ph. D. _ When penicillin became widely available during the second world war, it was a medical miracle, rapidly vanquishing the biggest wartime killerinfected wounds. Discovered initially by a French medical student, Ernest Duchesne, in 1896, and then rediscovered by Scottish physician Alexander Fleming in 1928, the product of the soil mold Penicillium mettlesome many types of disease-causing bacteria. But just four years subsequently medicine companies began mass-producing penicillin in 1943, microbes began appearing that could resist it.The first bug to battle penicillin was Staphylococcus aureus. This bacteria is often a harmless passenger in the forgiving body, but it after part ca work illness, such as pneumonia or toxic shock syndrome, when it overgrows or produces a toxin. In 1967, another type of penicillin-resistant pneumonia, ca utilise by Streptococcus pneumoniae and called pneumococcus, surfaced in a remote village in Papua impudent Guinea. At about(predicate) the same time, Ameri buns military personnel in southeast Asia were acquiring penicillin-resistant gonorrhea from prostitutes.By 1976, when the soldiers had come home, they brought the modernisticfound strain of gonorrhea with them, and physicians had to maintain new drugs to treat it. In 1983, a infirmary-acquired intestinal transmitting caused by the bacterium Enterococcus faecium joined the list of bugs that outwit penicillin. Antibiotic ohmic resistance spreads fast. Between 1979 and 1987, for example, completely 0. 02 percent of pneumococcus strains infecting a large chip of patients surveyed by the national nitty-grittys for Disease Control and Prevention were penicillin-resistant.CDCs survey included 13 hospitals in 12 states. Today, 6. 6 percent of pneumococcus strains atomic number 18 resistant, according to a composing in the June 15, 1994, Journal of the Ameri jackpot medical examination Association by Ro bert F. Breiman, M. D. , and colleagues at CDC. The bureau also reports that in 1992, 13,300 hospital patients died of bacterial infections that were resistant to antibiotic drug drug drug drug treatment. Why has this happened? There was self-complacency in the 1980s. The perception was that we had licked the bacterial infection problem. medicate companies werent working on new agents.They were concentrating on other atomic number 18as, such as viral infections, says Michael Blum, M. D. , medical officer in the Food and Drug Administrations division of anti-infective drug products. In the meantime, resistance change magnitude to a number of comm unless used antibiotics, possibly related to overuse of antibiotics. In the 1990s, weve come to a point for original infections that we dont have agents available. According to a report in the April 28, 1994, New England Journal of treat, researchers have identified bacteria in patient samples that resist all soon available anti biotic drugs.Survival of the Fittest The increased prevalence of antibiotic resistance is an outcome of evolution. Any population of organisms, bacteria included, naturally includes variants with unusual traitsin this case, the mogul to withstand an antibiotics attack on a microbe. When a person sequestrates an antibiotic, the drug kills the defenseless bacteria, leaving behindor selecting, in biological termsthose that can resist it. These renegade bacteria then multiply, increasing their numbers a millionfold in a day, becoming the predominant microorganism.The antibiotic does not technically cause the resistance, but al low-spiriteds it to happen by creating a situation where an already existing variant can flourish. Whenever antibiotics be used, there is selective pressure for resistance to occur. It builds upon itself. More and more organisms develop resistance to more and more drugs, says Joe Cranston, Ph. D. , director of the department of drug policy and standards at the American Medical Association in Chicago. A patient can develop a drug-resistant infection either by contracting a resistant bug to begin with, or by having a resistant microbe emerge in the body once antibiotic treatment begins.Drug-resistant infections increase risk of death, and argon often associated with prolonged hospital stays, and sometimes complications. These might necessitate removing part of a ravaged lung, or replacing a damaged heart valve. Bacterial Weaponry Disease-causing microbes thwart antibiotics by interfering with their mechanism of action. For example, penicillin kills bacteria by attaching to their cell walls, then destroying a key part of the wall. The wall falls apart, and the bacterium dies.Resistant microbes, however, either interchange their cell walls so penicillin cant bind or produce enzymes that dismantle the antibiotic. In another scenario, erythromycin attacks ribosomes, structures within a cell that enable it to make proteins. Resistant bacteria h ave slightly altered ribosomes to which the drug cannot bind. The ribosomal route is also how bacteria become resistant to the antibiotics tetracycline, streptomycin and gentamicin. How Antibiotic Resistance Happens Antibiotic resistance results from factor action. Bacteria acquire genes conferring resistance in any of three counsellings.In spontaneous DNA mutation, bacterial DNA (genetic material) may mutate (change) spontaneously (indicated by starburst). Drug-resistant tuberculosis arises this way. In a form of microbial sex called transformation, one bacterium may take up DNA from another bacterium. Pencillin-resistant gonorrhea results from transformation. near frightening, however, is resistance acquired from a small circle of DNA called a plasmid, that can flit from one type of bacterium to another. A single plasmid can provide a slew of different resistances.In 1968, 12,500 spate in Guatemala died in an epidemic of Shigella diarrhea. The microbe harbored a plasmid carryi ng resistances to four antibiotics A malevolent Cycle More Infections and Antibiotic Overuse Though bacterial antibiotic resistance is a natural phenomenon, societal factors also contribute to the problem. These factors include increased infection transmission, coupled with inappropriate antibiotic use. More people are contracting infections. Sinusitis among adults is on the rise, as are ear infections in electric shaverren. A report by CDCs Linda F. McCaig and James M.Hughes, M. D. , in the Jan. 18, 1995, Journal of the American Medical Association, tracks antibiotic use in treating common illnesses. The report cites nearly 6 million antibiotic prescriptions for sinusitis in 1985, and nearly 13 million in 1992. Similarly, for middle ear infections, the numbers are 15 million prescriptions in 1985, and 23. 6 million in 1992. Causes for the increase in reported infections are diverse. Some studies correlate the doubling in doctors office visits for ear infections for preschoolers b etween 1975 and 1990 to increased use of day-care facilities.Homelessness contributes to the spread of infection. Ironically, advances in modern medicine have made more people predisposed to infection. People on chemotherapy and transplant recipients taking drugs to suppress their immune function are at greater risk of infection. There are the number of immunocompromised patients, who wouldnt have survived in earlier times, says Cranston. Radical procedures produce patients who are in embarrassing shape in the hospital, and are prone to nosocomial hospital-acquired infections.Also, the general aging of patients who live longer, get sicker, and die slower contributes to the problem, he adds. Though some people clearly need to be treated with antibiotics, many experts are concerned about the inappropriate use of these powerful drugs. Many consumers have an expectation that when theyre ill, antibiotics are the answer. They set apart pressure on the physician to prescribe them. Most o f the time the illness is viral, and antibiotics are not the answer. This large burden of antibiotics is certainly selecting resistant bacteria, says Blum. some other much-publicized concern is use of antibiotics in livestock, where the drugs are used in well animals to prevent disease, and the animals are later slaughtered for food. If an animal gets a bacterial infection, growth is slowed and it doesnt put on weight as fast, says Joe Madden, Ph. D. , strategic manager of microbiology at FDAs Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. In addition, antibiotics are sometimes administered at low levels in feed for long durations to increase the rate of weight gain and improve the efficiency of converting animal feed to units of animal production.FDAs Center for Veterinary Medicine limits the amount of antibiotic residue in poultry and other meats, and the U. S. Department of Agriculture monitors meats for drug residues. According to Margaret Miller, Ph. D. , deputy division directo r at the Center for Veterinary Medicine, the residue limits for antimicrobial animal drugs are set low enough to ensure that the residues themselves do not select resistant bacteria in (human) gut flora. FDA is investigating whether bacteria resistant to quinolone antibiotics can emerge in food animals and cause disease in humans.Although thorough cooking sharply reduces the likeliness of antibiotic-resistant bacteria surviving in a meat meal to infect a human, it could happen. Pathogens resistant to drugs other than fluoroquinolones have sporadically been reported to survive in a meat meal to infect a human. In 1983, for example, 18 people in four midwestern states developed multi-drug-resistant Salmonella food poisoning after eating beef from cows fed antibiotics. Eleven of the people were hospitalized, and one died. A study conducted by Alain Cometta, M. D. , and his colleagues at theCentre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois in Lausanne, Switzerland, and reported in the April 28, 1994, New England Journal of Medicine, showed that increase in antibiotic resistance parallels increase in antibiotic use in humans. They examined a large group of pubic louse patients given antibiotics called fluoroquinolones to prevent infection. The patients white blood cell counts were very low as a result of their cancer treatment, leaving them open to infection. Between 1983 and 1993, the division of such patients receiving antibiotics rose from 1. 4 to 45.During those years, the researchers isolated Escherichia coli bacteria annually from the patients, and tested the microbes for resistance to five types of fluoroquinolones. Between 1983 and 1990, all 92 E. coli strains tested were easily killed by the antibiotics. But from 1991 to 1993, 11 of 40 tested strains (28 percent) were resistant to all five drugs. Towards Solving the Problem Antibiotic resistance is inevitable, say scientists, but there are measures we can take to slow it. Efforts are under way on several frontsi mproving infection interpret, developing new antibiotics, and using drugs more appropriately.Barbara E. Murray, M. D. , of the University of Texas Medical School at Houston writes in the April 28, 1994, New England Journal of Medicine that simple improvements in public health measures can go a long way towards preventing infection. Such approaches include more frequent hand washing by health-care workers, quick identification and isolation of patients with drug-resistant infections, and improving sewage systems and water purity in developing nations. Drug manufacturers are once again becoming interested in developing new antibiotics.These efforts have been spurred both by the appearance of new bacterial illnesses, such as Lyme disease and Legionnaires disease, and resurgences of old foes, such as tuberculosis, due to drug resistance. FDA is doing all it can to speed development and availability of new antibiotic drugs. We cant identify new agentsthats the job of the pharmaceutical industry. But once they have identified a promising new drug for resistant infections, what we can do is to meet with the company very early and help design the development plan and clinical trials, says Blum.In addition, drugs in development can be used for patients with multi-drug-resistant infections on an emergency IND (compassionate use) basis, if the physician requests this of FDA, Blum adds. This is done for people with AIDS or cancer, for example. No one really has a good idea of the limit of antibiotic resistance, because it hasnt been monitored in a coordinated fashion. Each hospital monitors its own resistance, but there is no good national system to test for antibiotic resistance, says Blum. This may soon change.CDC is encouraging local health officials to track resistance data, and the World Health Organization has initiated a global computer database for physicians to report outbreaks of drug-resistant bacterial infections. Experts agree that antibiotics should be res tricted to patients who can truly benefit from themthat is, people with bacterial infections. Already this is being done in the hospital setting, where the routine use of antibiotics to prevent infection in certain surgical patients is being reexamined. We have known since way back in the antibiotic era that these drugs have been used inappropriately in surgical prophylaxis preventing infections in surgical patients. But there is more success in limiting antibiotic use in hospital settings, where guidelines are established, than in the more typical outpatient settings, says Cranston. Murray points out an example of antibiotic prophylaxis in the outpatient settingchildren with recurrent ear infections given extended antibiotic prescriptions to prevent future infections. (See defend Little Pitchers Ears in the December 1994 FDA Consumer. Another problem with antibiotic use is that patients often stop taking the drug too soon, because symptoms improve. However, this merely encourages resistant microbes to proliferate. The infection returns a few weeks later, and this time a different drug must(prenominal) be used to treat it. Targeting TB Stephen Weis and colleagues at the University of North Texas Health acquisition Center in Fort Worth reported in the April 28, 1994, New England Journal of Medicine on research they conducted in Tarrant County, Texas, that vividly illustrates how helping patients to take the full course of their medication can actually lower resistance rates.The subjecttuberculosis. TB is an infection that has experienced spectacular ups and downs. Drugs were developed to treat it, complacency set in that it was beaten, and the disease resurged because patients stopped their medication too soon and infected others. Today, one in seven new TB cases is resistant to the 2 drugs most commonly used to treat it (isoniazid and rifampin), and 5 percent of these patients die. In the Texas study, 407 patients from 1980 to 1986 were allowed to take the ir medication on their own.From 1986 until the end of 1992, 581 patients were closely followed, with nurses observing them take their pills. By the end of the study, the relapse ratewhich reflects antibiotic resistancefell from 20. 9 to 5. 5 percent. This trend is especially significant, the researchers note, because it occurred as risk factors for spreading TBincluding AIDS, intravenous drug use, and homelessnesswere increasing. The conclusion Resistance can be slowed if patients take medications correctly.Narrowing the Spectrum Appropriate prescribing also means that physicians use narrow spectrum antibioticsthose that target only a few bacterial typeswhenever possible, so that resistances can be restricted. The only national survey of antibiotic prescribing practices of office physicians, conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics, finds that the number of prescriptions has not risen appreciably from 1980 to 1992, but there has been a shift to using costlier, broader spectrum agents.This prescribing trend heightens the resistance problem, write McCaig and Hughes, because more diverse bacteria are being exposed to antibiotics. One way FDA can help physicians choose narrower spectrum antibiotics is to ensure that labeling keeps up with evolving bacterial resistances. Blum hopes that the surveillance information on emerging antibiotic resistances from CDC will enable FDA to require that product labels be updated with the most current surveillance information. Many of us have come to take antibiotics for granted.A child develops strep throat or an ear infection, and soon a bottle of pink medicine makes everything better. An adult suffers a sinus headache, and antibiotic pills quickly control it. But infections can and do still kill. Because of a complex combination of factors, serious infections may be on the rise. While awaiting the next wonder drug, we must appreciate, and use correctly, the ones that we already have. drawrect Big Difference If t his bacterium could be shown four times bigger, it would be the right relative size to the virus downstairs it. Both are microscopic and are shown many times larger than life. ) Although bacteria are single-celled organisms, viruses are far simpler, consisting of one type of biochemical (a nucleic acid, such as DNA or RNA) wrapped in another (protein). Most biologists do not consider viruses to be living things, but instead, infective particles. Antibiotic drugs attack bacteria, not viruses. drawrect *The Greatest FearVancomycin* Resistance When microbes began resisting penicillin, medical researchers fought back with chemical cousins, such as methicillin and oxacillin.By 1953, the antibiotic armamentarium included chloramphenicol, neomycin, terramycin, tetracycline, and cephalosporins. But today, researchers fear that we may be nearing an end to the seemingly endless flow of antimicrobial drugs. At the center of current concern is the antibiotic vancomycin, which for many infectio ns is literally the drug of last resort, says Michael Blum, M. D. , medical officer in FDAs division of anti-infective drug products. Some hospital-acquired staph infections are resistant to all antibiotics chuck out vancomycin. Now vancomycin resistance has turned up in another common hospital bug, enterococcus.And since bacteria swap resistance genes like teenagers swap T-shirts, it is only a matter of time, many microbiologists believe, until vancomycin-resistant staph infections appear. Staph aureus may pick up vancomycin resistance from enterococci, which are found in the normal human gut, says Madden. And the speed with which vancomycin resistance has spread through enterococci has prompted researchers to use the word crisis when discussing the possibility of vancomycin-resistant staph. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci were first reported in England and France in 1987, and appeared in one New York City hospital in 1989.By 1991, 38 hospitals in the United States reported the b ug. By 1993, 14 percent of patients with enterococcus in intensive-care units in some hospitals had vancomycin-resistant strains, a 20-fold increase from 1987. A frightening report came in 1992, when a British researcher observed a transfer of a vancomycin-resistant gene from enterococcus to Staph aureus in the laboratory. Alarmed, the researcher immediately destroyed the bacteria. Ricki_ Lewis is a geneticist and textbook author. _ drawrect FDA Consumer magazine (September 1995)

Factors thata effect health and well-being Essay

Elizabeth is providing her body with the energy her body needs to perform surface and succeed in her work through exercising. Exercise appends stimulation for the card. Stimulation improves brain function, which will improve many things like learning new skills and concentration. Also, pile who remain physically active as they age agree a reduced risk of dementia. Elizabeth goes swimming every Saturday with her children. This is an example of the social benefits of exercise. This could servicing Elizabeth contrive a positive self- image and have positive self-esteem.Exercise also has many psychological and emotional benefits. When you exercise endorphins ar released in the brain Endorphins ar the bodys natural feel good chemicals, and when they are released through exercise, your mood is boosted naturally. As well endorphins, exercise also releases adrenaline, serotonin, and dopamine. All of these chemicals improve mood. Endorphins are the bodys natural painkillers. The endo rphins released during exercise could help Elizabeth with the pain she gets from her ulcerative colitis.Altogether exercise will improve Elizabeths health, mental state and provide stimulation for her brain, which will help her with many different aspects of life. Regular exercise is benefiting Elizabeths physical, intellectual, emotional and social health and well-being. It is vital that she maintains this positive factor in her life. Supportive Relationships Elizabeth has many substantiative relationships in her life. She has a loving family, a good relationship with her partner and a stable group of friends.Research shows that rubicund and supportive relationships mint reduce stress and improve your overall health and sense of well-being. The main advantages of having supportive relationships are the psychological benefits. On average, people who have supportive relationships are less likely to have mental health problems. Elizabeth does not, and never has, suffered from any m ental health problems. This may be because she has people she can talk over any worries or problems with. This will help Elizabeth cope with things like stress and feeling of depression.If Elizabeth feels she has people she can trust and confide in she will be less likely to let these sort of feeling get out of control, she will be able to confront things before they fit problems. If Elizabeth did not have such supportive relationships she would be at risk of suffering form stress, which would affect her physical health in many ways. Elizabeth sufferers from Ulcerative Colitis, and although the cause of it is unknown, it is suspected that stress can increase symptoms.So Elizabeths physical well being will be benefiting from supportive relationships because it will help prevent stress causing any flare ups of her Ulcerative Colitis. Elizabeths intellectual development will benefit because she will be less likely to take time off work, and she will be more likely to take part in thin gs that will stimulate her brain such as exercise. Conversation may also provide stimulation. Elizabeth will benefit in ever aspect of her health and well-being because she has good supportive relationships in her life.

Facilitate Counselling Process Essay

I assign that this assessment is my own work, based on my own personal research/study . I also decl atomic number 18 that this assessment, nor parts of it, has not been previously submitted for any other unit/module or course, and that I have not copied in part or whole or otherwise plagiarised the work of another student and/or persons. I have read the ACAP Student Plagiarism and Academic Misconduct insurance and attend its implications.I also declare, if this is a practical skills assessment, that a Client/Interviewee Consent Form has been read and signed by both parties, and where applicable maternal(p) consent has been obtained.1. Explain the purpose of direction and the scope of counselling relationships, including professional limitations. Counselling is a professional progression avenue where a client feces tell their story to a counselor in a confidential setting. Throughout the process proponents attempt to build a relationship with clients built on trust and empathy. Counsellors guide clients to achieve personal goals, give tools to be their own solution creator and given them the opportunity to come to their own understanding of themselves and/or situation. Client progress can be attainable with clear, realistic and concise goals, which is managed throughout. In some instances referring the clients to secondary serve, other professional avenues and alternate programs beyond the counsellors limitations get out allow the client to achieve their goals and understanding.2. Explain to a new client the nature of the client-centred approach to counselling.Alice, Im here to listen, empathies and understand your story. You know yourself, you are the expert of your life, feeling and attitudes, Im here to help you understand what it is you want to achieve. In this forum you are valued, respected and perceived without prejudice or judgment. Im not hereto tell you what to do or how you should feel, Im here for you. You are telling your story, your feeling s are justified, and you will be understood.3. Identify three important areas to address with clients in the initial counselling session. Confidentiality Everything said during the session is bound by confidentiality. No information will be disclosed to a third party without the clients consent. Mandatory reporting The counsellor is legally bound to disclosure information to relevant governing bodies, breaking confidentiality, in the instance where a minor is in danger and or the client is in immediate danger to themselves or others. Informed consent The client is make aware of the cost, location, frequency, duration, and note taking of the sessions, out of session nexus and late or no show fees.4. Identify and explain two basic micro-skills of counselling and their purpose in facilitating client understanding.Counselling microskills are skills used to enhance and encourage communication with clients. Two basic microskils, which enhance building rapport with a client, is Attendi ng and Active listening.Attending is showing that the counsellor is present to the client. The counsellor seated facing the client, giving the client the impression that the counselor is involved at bottom process Open posture, the counselor is available to listen to the client Leaning forward, appropriately showing attention is being shown Eye contact, appropriate eye contact showing interest and presences Relax state with the client allows to the client to feel at ease and comfortable.Active listening allows to consellor to engage with the client, minimal responses can be verbal (hmm, yep) and non verbal (nodding, smile) actions to encourage the client to continue talking, they are being heard and understood. The use of paraphrasing by the counsellor, repeating the client story to them but victimization own words indicating the counsellor is listening, trying/understanding and empathising with the client.5. Identify and briefly describe two client disclosures that would require i mmediate action on the counsellors part and what action you would take for each.If a client has disclosed immediate danger to themself or other the councellor is to call the Local Police discussion section and/the Local Mental Health team. If a minor is at risk of significant harm, whether physical, sexual, emotional, psychological abuse or neglect the Department of community services is to be contacted.6. Choose one of the following examples of clients strong emotional reactions and explain how you would respond in your role as counsellor aggressive behaviour and reaction, excessively talkative, rapid changes in emotions.A client excessively talking I would use SOLER, slience as they need the outlet, miminal encourages to show them they are heard, paraphrase or theorise on what they have said to gain an understanding of what it is they are feeling.7. Identify and explain three reasons why self-reflection is an important skill for a counsellor.Self-reflection within counsellors i s to understand their own emotions, prejudices, biass and personal interests. Counselllors need to identify their own countertransference, anxieties and limitations. Engaging with appointed supervisors help counsellors to understand their emotions, create personal development, an outlet. Counsellors are a direct result of their strengths, limitations and values. Time spent on selfreflecting is time spent to better help and understand clients.

Ch. 4 Reflection for Love in the Time of Cholera

Chapter 4 Reflection Being in control of your life completely is a bit impossible in these times. Moreover, it was even much difficult during the time period of the book. Usually, a man is the head of the house. But, in fermina Dazas household, she was the head of the house. Dr. Urbino, though a man held in high toy with in the community, was a very passive man in his household. Their household demonstrates a change in the roles of the genders.Fermina, due to her personality, has adopted a more governing role in their marriage, while Dr. Urbino has a more passive role. Fermina, throughout the years, have assumed a dominant rule that no one in the house is over. Prior to her marriage to Dr. Urbino, when, upon her return from the trip abroad, her father recognizes her newfound maturity and grants Fermina control of the house. Fermina, now far more mature and capable than ever, is inclined to being in control. She is the secret emperor of the household, while Dr.Urbino is sort of a figurehead. This also explains why she is so exasperated when Dr. Urbinos mother usurps her domestic control. Fermina hates Dona Blanca so much be fount Dona, in some aspects of her character, emulates Ferminas father, Lorenzo Daza. Like Lorenzo, Dona exerts her place over Fermina, and uses this authority to control her. As with her father, Fermina is powerless to fight back, for retaliation against Dona Blanca would only be futile, and cause unwanted strife within the household.For the first time since her return from her journey, she is belittled and that pisses her off to no end. My mother and I have a constant power struggle in the house. I think because of our extremely similar personalities, we are unable to get along without conflict most of the time. My mother has raised three children before me, so she knows what to do when raising children. She has a set of expectations that is very strict because it has been tried true through three generations before me.They have been methods tried and steeled through her experiences with my older sisters. I try to resist her dominance because i slump to just give and and let her completely dominate my life. So, when i refuse to give in to her established expectations, conflict is created through both of us. We both try to exert our dominance and our strong personalities prevent us from giving in. My tumult disrupts the absolute power she thinks she has as a parent. It is hard to give up something youve had for a long time.With Fermina, it is her dominance of being the head of the house for so many years. With my mother, it will be her authority as a parent. People arent too willing to give up their positions of power. After what they may have been through to observe that position, it would seem plausible as to why they wouldnt want to give it up. It is in human nature to be greedy, and also we dont bid things changing too much. The older you get, the more you dislike it. But, i think we should all learn to embrace the changes we have.

Joining Charles

How Is Charles? Thesis on Joining Charles Joining Charles written by Elizabeth Bowen tells the story of the young woman Louise who is going to gaolbreak to France as it is the place where her husband Charles works and lives. The story takes place on the morning of her depature in the White House which is the home of Charles family and Louise isnt happy virtually herself joining Charles in France. Even though Charles isnt the protagonist of the story and doesnt interact at all, he is present throughout the whole story.Louise ever thinks about him and how it is going to be for her in France and in the future with Charles together. She doesnt come along to like him at all. This emotion becomes obvious in many move of the story when she thinks about him. Louise doesnt want to get a baby of Charles, she turns her head away from his picture in the morning and in the subvert she doesnt know what to tell to the mother of charles most probably because her whole attitude towards Charles is so repellent and it would be very unlikely something positive.Yet the reader goat only guess how Charles actually is as there is no clear description of him, nor does he interact at all. The only hints to his character gives the oneeyed cat Polyphemus which locoweed talk according to Louise, some phrases of charles sisters and mother and the thoughts of Louise. The cat doesnt have any good experiences with Charles and asks Louise to ask Charles what had happend to his other eye. Louise is the only one who can look Polyphemus and the sisters interprete the cats behaviour different.For them Polyphemus loves Charles and thats why he spends so much time with Louise. The sisters see Charles as a brother who takes care of them. They look up to him and make him in their thoughts to a better lover, brother and son. Even if his arrangements gives them disadvantage they remain nice as they are good souls how Louise calls them. For the mother Charles is a broad of hero, someone who is sensitive, gallant, generous, a knightly person and who is transcending modern conventions. But still she realizes that Louise isnt really happy.Perhaps she somehow knows how Charles really is and that is why she tells Louise in the end that marriage isnt easy and that many things might be difficult. From other parts of Louises thoughts the reader comes to know how he takes part in the family life. He isnt really interested in how the family goes, asks only very unintimate things and makes kind of fun of his sisters feelings. All in all Charles doesnt seem to be a very nice person more likely an egostic and perhaps evem evil character.All those who have been really close to him dont want to interact with him. Louise aswell as the cat dont seem to have good experiences with him. The sisters mostly dont see him the way he really is because he seemed to be always nice. He perhaps kind of bedazzeld them, them and his mother but as for the mother it is not clear how she actually thinks o f him. The perfect son image which is created doesnt stand with her last action. That gives another hint that he is a rather bad, egostic and difficult person.

Mr Know All Essay

There argon two aspects which influence the issue of a novel. They argon the extrinsic elements and the intrinsic elements (Sukada, 1987 47). Extrinsic elements atomic number 18 the elements comes from of literary decease such as the elements of hi legend, social and culture, psychology, religion and philosophy. Intrinsic elements are the whole elements which make up structure of literary work such as plot, move, base, acknowledgment, look, etc. this field, the writer leave talk rough the aspect of intrinsic elements in a novel which are theme, plot, setting, and char moer.It is a little hard to analyze the intrinsic elements in a novel, because many experts have different opinion to shape which included to the intrinsic elements. (1987 54- 57). Gave some experts caprice to define the intrinsic elements. 1. Jakob sumardjo stated that the intrinsic elements are plot, constitution, theme, setting, atmosphere, mode, and range of observe. 2. Wellek & Warren stated that the intrinsic elements are plot, character, setting, solid ground spate, t iodin. 3. Taylor (1988 2) the intrinsic elements are plot, character, setting, theme, and bloom of hear. The writer chooses Sumardjos idea which will be analyzed, some of those elements, at that place are theme, plot, setting, and character.1. Theme Theme is the main(prenominal) handling, which is put on important place in literary work, M,S Hutagalung (in Ahmad Badrun, 198385). William Kenny (1966 89) adds the theme is neither moral or the subject of the stratum. In addition, theme is meaning the base releases. chaste is a simple kind of theme, because only of themes of moral. It mess be transport that theme is the main discussion the written report released. Add moral is a simple sort theme. Opdhal (1968 3) said that, theme is a idea or the concept implied in a short story .All stories have a theme or purpose no matter how seriously the stipulation chooses to present it (Hamalian & Karl 1978 327).A Theme of a story like plot maybe stated very briefly or at a greater length, with a simple or very brief story. We may be satisfied to sum up the theme in a iodine sentence just we may feel that a paragraph occasionally even an essay is needed to state it adequatel. (Perin, 1978 113). Theme is the controlling and informing idea a literary work. Which writer content is a true or un true a preposition which he undertaken to defends or attack (Duffy & Pettit, 1953 125). Theme and character are often closely related.The characters often symbolize an aspect of the theme. To assert the theme of a novel, (Perine, 1978 117). Stated that we should keep in mind the following principles. a) Theme mustiness(prenominal) be expressible in the form of a statement with a subject and predicate. b) Theme is a key and unifying concept of a story. Therefore, (a) it must account For all the study details of the story, (b) the theme must non contradicted by any detail of the st ory, (c) the theme must not rely upon supposed facts not actually stated or clearly implied by the story. c) Theme must state as evocation approximately life.d) There is no one way of starting the theme of a story. e) We must be careful not to makes generalizes larger than is justified by the terms of the story. f) We should avoid any statement that reduces the theme to some familiar saying that we have heard all our lives.2. Point of take The same as other elements of fiction, pull down of billet, likewise ties together in the short story because each element could not be separated with another ones, point of view is the indites vision toward character in the story (Rampan, 1995 39). So this point of view closely related to telling techniques of the antecedent toward work of fiction. In this case, the authors view will give con arrayration that short story has made must be a unity of a story. Abrams (In Nurgiantoro, 1995 248) defines point of view as the technique that s employ by the author media to express character. Behavior, setting and, and some answers in form a literary work.Furthermore, point of view plenty be mentioned as strategy, which in chosen freckly to reveal ideas and jazz Both ideas and ideas and experiences are useful to find out the information of intrinsic elements, particularly point of view. Kamaly (2005 14) said that point of view is a way in delivering a story. Therefore, its a kind of tactic of the author in telling all events in that story. Abram, (In Nurgiantoro, 2002 249) said that point of view refers to the way a story is t senior .it is a way and or the view utilize by author as a medium in serving the character, action, setting, and the events. He and him self concludes that point of view is essentially a strategy, technique, and tactic which are used and chosen by an author in telling story. Nurgiantoro (2002 242 271) divides point of view into three kinds they are third single someone, first individual a nd mixed point of view.a) Third single personIt is point of view in which the narrator is an out said, it then presents all characters by name or pronoun. Nelson, Sarah, and Mrs Brand, or him, her and them. The author does not included in the story in this sign of story telling the narrator can tell everything about the story or the character in details. This method of story-telling is withal called the eye of deity because the narrator is put or put himself as god like who knows everything. When the narrator comes as on observer only, it called check all-knowing narration in which the narrator will only know one of the characters felling, attitude, and behavior this point of view is divided into two kinds they are the first, single limited narrator or he or she limited, the second, third single person omniscient. In third single person .Limited, the narrator tells about everything the figure, knows, hears, and sees, however it is limited to one figure only. The omniscient poi nt of view or third person omniscient is a way in which the story is told point of view he however the narrator can tell everything about figure. Therefore the narrator knows everything.b) First champion PersonIn this kind of point of view the author used I becomes one of character in the story. The narrator tells about him self, all the experiences he got through somatogenicly, I in this font point of view the character i comes as a narrator who tells about himself or everything he found, hears, and feel. This type of point of view is divided in to two they are I as a main character, and I as additional character when I becomes the main character in the story. He will tell everything about himself. All of her knowledge, feels and experiences. In short he tell all about he himself. When the I comes up as an additional character, he in this position comes as a avow only who knows a little that happen to the main character. The main duty of the character in this case is just to s erve the story.c) Mixing Point Of ViewThe author sometimes tells from the beginning part of chapter by employ first person single narrator. In other chapter the author changes his tactic by using third single person narrator. It can be seen in one of sir Arthur Conan Doyles (1987 work authorise a study I scarlet. Thus this type of point of view is called mixing of point of view. Furthermore ,Sumardjo and Saini (1986 83 84). There are four types point of view, they are (1) omniscient point view. the author freely telling characters in the story. They determine themselves what they want to do, author knew all about the characters as the pronoun she/he (Nurgiyantoro, 1995 275). (2) Objective point of view, the authors work as in omniscient but not reveal a comment to the story.Readers are offered real situation without change the actual meaning. Letting the endorsers know the content of story freely.(Keegen, 1997). (3) first person point of view, the author tell himself as the P ronoun I, sometime telling his experience based on the though way. (4) observer point of view, the author might choose characters to tell their experiences, ideas and feelings but these characters just show to the readers about what they have seen. In short, an author may collaborates two kinds of point of view in his work. He may use third single person and first single person in one novel. He also may use third single person omniscient narrator and third single person limited narrator.3. Plot Plot is a serial publication of events created by the author to tell the story .In most of stories, these events rise out of contrast experiences by the main character. The conflict isnt come from internal only but conflict comes from something external too, Stanton (In Nurgiantoro, 2002 113) said that plot is story that contains series of events. in time, the causality aspect only connects each those event. One event caused the other event to happen. Nurgiantoro (2002 115) said that plot is the reflection of the character s behavior and attitude in acting, thinking, felling, and facing the problems of life he or she faces.However not all of the clement being experiences called plot. In addition, he added that the event, attitude, and behavior of human being would called a plot if they have special type. Syamsir Aripin as (In Kuswaris, 2005 14) said that plot is an integration of series of events that composed as functional interrelation. Plot reveals events to use only in their temporal but also their causal family, plot makes us aware of events not merely as element in temporal series but also as an increate pattern of cause and effect. In addition, the readers will know soonly about the end of the story as they just start reading the novel. However, they will not know about process or each detail of story until the last page of it, mixing plot, in a range. Some parts of the story are tells chronologically and the others are the flash back. Crises are the situa tion where as the character is give description by authors attitude. Climax is the mo of the greatest frantic tension so those conflicts in the story slow down. Conclusion is resolution of the story.4. prospect Setting is object lesson of times and places. It can also include complex dimension such as historical moment the story occupies or its social context, because particular places and times have impersonality or senseal essence. Setting was also one of primary ways that a fiction writer established mood. When and where events occur are calls setting .They will become background of the story. Therefore, the readers of the story will get information about the condition and the situation of the places and times as the takes places. Aminudin (In Kuswari, 2005 16). Explained that setting is background of occurrence in fiction.Setting refers to place, time relationship , and social environment in which the events taken place. Setting can be divided into two physical and spiritu al setting. Physical setting refers to place and time. Spritual setting refers to custom, tradition, believe and value of the society where the event happens. (Nurgiantoro, 2002 218). It can be concluded that setting is background. of story the event illustrate .It refers to merely to the physical but also to non physical .The physical setting my consist of place and space namely road, rivers and house. In addition, non physical setting or spiritual setting refers to believe, costume, tradition and value as well.5. Character Character is a person in a play or story (Duffy & Pettit, 1953 24) Character development involves both physical descriptive and classification of the mental and spiritual qualities of the person (Opdhal, 1968 3). Stanton stated that of story has the major character. its character, which is related to every event in the story, usually it will show the change both in the character itself or act toward the character. According to foster (Taylor, 1981 65) cha racter is divided in two types compressed and round character. Flat character is less the representation of human personality than the embodiment of a single attitude or irresistible impulse in a character. Foster this calls kind of character flat because we see only one side of him.A flat character that never ramps the readers is immediately recognizable and usually can be delineate as a single formula. Milley and Clueley (1904 27) divided characters in two categories. They are the major and the minor characters. The major characters are that a central to the action, so continual in there presents. In which it is expected that the author explore their take up and motivation thoroughly. While the minor character as miller, said has seen by us as they imagine on the person who support the major character so that the major character action become live and logical as the real life.Round characters are those false creation who has complex many faceted personalities and an independen t inner life which itself invites our interest. Round characters can surprise the readers without credibility. A round character can surprise the readers without loosing credibility of a character. He must be credible, we as a reader want him to be recognizable similar in some aspects to mass we have known, so that we can relate to him can understand, can like or dislike him. We may conclude that complexity of characters tends to produce lifelikeness in the world of fiction. Round character is more lifelike than flat character lifelike is one form of relevance.No real human being can be adequately summed up in formula as a flat character. Certainly no reader of fiction would be willing to admit that he can be summed up .Real human beings are capable of surprising us. The round character can surprise us and the flat character cannot. A character may be consistent with what we have learned about .To identify characters in a story or novel the author may use three ways a) The author t ells us whether he is like by exposition or analysis. b) The character reveals himself through his speeches and action. c) The reaction of other characters to him indicated what type of a person he is.6. Style Style is not quite different from point of view, where bolt emphasizes toward telling techniques about characters, and then point of view is the authors way to express characters. Aminuddin (2003 72) and Keraf (1985 112) specify hyphen comes from Latin Language (slilus), is a tool for writing. Furthermore style become skill talent reveal ideas and aesthetic word and can express the meaning beyond feeling touch and readers emotion in other words. Good literary are works that have harmony and aesthetic address and make readers are not boring, enjoy and feel empathy, it depends on authors skill how to express style, in other word skill is author personality (Somardjo and Saini, 1986 92) or techniques reveal thoughts through characteristic language ,which showing author a nd soul and personality (Goris Keraf, 1985 113).Style is fiction refers to the language conventions used to stool the story fiction writers can manipulate diction sentences structure, phrasing, dialog, and other aspects of language to create the style. Thus, a storys story could be described as richly detailed. Flowing and barely controlled. Or scrimping and minimalist to reflect the simple sentence structures and low range of vocabulary. By using different style in the short story, the readers also acquired different atmosphere from a story. Usually, old authors have strong style to express their work different with young authors are still looking for a format, even styles of old writers will be followed by young writers, (Sumarjdo Saini, 1986 92). Language is central equipment which is used by the authors to reveal their commendations.However literary language has own target that different with languages of magazine, newspaper and daily language. The using of literary style is based on three fundamental matter, they are (1) diction, (2) the form of word in the sentence (3) trace (Rampan, 1993 63).The three fundamental matters will avoke authors typical that compare it with others. Kerap (In Rampan,1995 63) states that. Style is a part of diction that confers capable word usage in certain clause to face certain situation. Because of the phenomenon of style covering all language hierarchy diction individually, phrase, clause and sentences or cover all discourses generally.

The Effective Methods to Learn New Vocabulary

Shiyu Wang EDI ccc Dr. Pole 09/26/2011 The Effective Methods To Learn New Vocabulary Vocabulary is one of the three important elements of language, and it is the base of literature. Whatever battalion communicate with new(prenominal)s by any language, and the first requirement is that people must have certain dictionary. In muse activities, teachers emphasize listening, speaking, reading, and writing, but get rallying cryers clearnot learn without vocabulary. Vocabulary information is a regale of memorizing and recognizing. If students dont have enough vocabulary, they get out spend more time to read, and they be not interested in the books they read.Learning language base is truly important in English teaching, and larn language base includes knowledge and skill. For accumulating vocabulary knowledge, and pointing to the difficulties to students, some researchers provide some modes below to soften the knowledge qualities. In the beginning, vocabulary learning inc ludes two sides, and they argon accumulating and understanding. The purpose of learning vocabulary is letting students regale both word, so the best method of learning vocabulary is by reading. If they handle the sentences, they volition recall the linguistic communication.One disadvantage of learning by rote is that all words are in alphabetical order, and student raisenot be interested in those words beca design of no connection with their life. This will be a very passive activity, but memorizing is active. For example, people might mobilize name of the person they want to make help with. That is not because you repeat it, but also you are memory activator. The separate disadvantage is that even though people remember the meanings of the words, they mintnot use them to write articles.In varied language environment, one word has dissimilar meanings. So, apply sentence frame to develop vocabulary is a better method. If you read a sentence all day, the value will be mo re than that people recite twenty words. Dr. Kesler prompted students to continue apply the textual information to consider the words meaning. After reading, we revisited the words in context and how often they appeared in the text. The students then groovy and generated new possible sentences that we discussed based on new textual information. (Ted 2) Reading is good, but the sentences should be open up in our favorite articles. Firstly, people must love that sentence, because understanding is the basic of using. For instance, when I read post Twain, one sentence is written like that constantly worries about money as her family waddleed between near-prosperity and civil poverty. This sentence describes the family economic situation exactly. Because I love this sentence, I immediately remember the word teeter. Then, Ameri suffer sociologist, Dr.Hymes stated that only when studying one language is not enough, students must have the aptitude of communicating by the language. They must understand how to use suitable methods to express the honest purpose, and this expression method depends on the social cultural background. The cultural background is abundant. Generally, learning vocabulary has the firm connection with learning cultural background. Therefore, during the studying process, we might meet many words related to to shade, when we learn these words, we should know the culture around the words. For that reason, they are not separated.I am an international student in the USA, so I stick out in a totally different culture environment, so the same meaning word has different meaning and usage in different culture environment. For example, in Ameri tail assembly people mind, week is from sunlight to Saturday, but in Chinese culture, week is from Monday to Sunday. At the same time, in different culture background, every word have abundant cultural connotation except denotation. Therefore, people should communicate with others by motley language a nd culture. On the other side, good culture knowledge can not lead people communicate with others.Reading a lot of newspaper, books, and movies can let students understand the suitable environment, and they can know the true meaning of the vocabulary, so they will have the ability to communicate with other people, and get the purpose of using the new words. Using new pictures to learn and review Next, teachers should develop the interests of learning words. For changing the boring learning methods, they must use several different teaching ways to let students are interested in new vocabulary by themselves. Firstly, teachers can use new pictures to learn and review, so they can use several pictures to lead students to learn.For example, they can create many kinds of picture cards to learn fruit and veg words. Those cards will catch childrens attention, and this will be the best time to remember vocabulary. Secondly, teachers can use real things. Students dont like boring lecture, bu t several real things are close to the reality life, so they can see and touch the objects, so they will develop their study interests, then teachers can teach new words with letting students look at the real objects. Thirdly, teachers can let students to sing songs.If teachers can compose the songs by the new words, they can let students sing with performance, and it will build a relaxing study environment. Fourthly, playing games is also a good method to let students have study interests, and it can change the boring language situation to be an interesting chassis structure that students can accept. Fifthly, teachers can use some simple drawing. When they draw the pictures, they will remember the words effectively. In Janet Towells E-journal named Fun with vocabulary, she also introduce many other interesting ways to learn vocabulary, like color shock.It is a technique that was originally designed for right-brained, learning disabled students to help them remember sight words. Ri ght-brained children seem to have a special sensitivity for bright colors. (Janet 356) This way is using different colors with different letters, so it will be a best way to learn words. The other way she Word cross game show readers is onsets and rimes, and this technique for developing phonemic awareness can help beginning readers quickly and effectively learn many sight words using word patterns. (Janet 356) Those methods are all good for students to learn new vocabulary. Last but not least, technology will be another effective methods to learn new vocabulary. Using new technology can reproduce several situations, and in teaching process. Firstly, powerpoint can be used independently without other software. Powerpoint can middleman to video, flash, picture, and other audio records, and teachers can show the course subject area by several media. Powerpoint is very active, and it cannot only catch students attention, but also help student remember words well.Secondly, study is a process of structure knowledge and studying actively. Therefore, teachers should let students think continuously, and get knowledge by thinking. By face flash, students will find that words can have their living power because changing can develop memory. Thirdly, teachers try their best to using the Internet resource. On the Internet, students can read some materials that are related to the content they need to learn. They will understand the textbooks deeply, and at the same time, they will develop their reading ability. Dr.Dalton thinks that teachers can create a digital version of a vocabulary field trip using a free program called TrackStar. It allows you to collect a series of websites and annotate them so that students follow the online journal. (Bridget 4) They also can use advantage of online word reference tools as teaching tools, for example, the visual thesaurus website complement its freebased content with free information such as the Behind the Dictionary and Teach ers at work. (Bridget 4) Additionally, students can exchange their thoughts with other students on the Internet.In conclusion, Emily Dickinson writes a poem called A Word that A word is dead When it is said, Some say, I say it just Begins to live That day. So, learning new vocabulary can be very interesting, and on that point are many different effective methods to remember words. Fluent language cannot exist without huge vocabulary accumulating, so enjoying vocabulary is the basic of learning language well. Without vocabulary, reading, translating, and writing cannot continue. Language learning develops by practicing and repeating, so teachers must keep students passion.Interest is the best teacher. The effective method to make vocabulary learning active is a necessary way teachers must research. Works Cited The Reading Teacher. Newark, Del. , etc world-wide Reading Association, 1989. Internet resource. Reading Teacher. Newark, Del International Reading Association, 1900. Inte rnet resource. Games. Photograph. Webshots. 2011. Web. 2 Dec. 2011. http//vocabulary. net/games/ Basic Vocabulary Skills Cards. Photograph. Webshots. 22 August. 2011. Web. 2 Dec. 2011. http//www. ssww. com/item/basic-vocabulary-skills-cards-LR1184/

Introduction to Investment Appraisal Techniques

Firms throughout the world expand by starting gives and carrying out investments in different industries and sectors. An valuable building block in these investments is the analysis and later the rating of these see to its on the basis of economic, live and pecuniary data. Investment estimate techniques provide the pecuniary data and in like manner help managers mend the financial vi faculty of to from each one one and every end under consideration. Concepts Related to Investment Appraisal MethodsAlmost all estimate techniques argon base on certain building blocks. These building blocks require estimations and forecasting of present data into the coming(prenominal). For casing future growth rates and interest rates need to be predicted in order to calculate the comprise of not bad(p) for different projects. Similarly an opposite primal estimation is connect to the cash in inflows and cash outflows for a particular project. This requires the project evaluators or analysts to come up with accurate forecasts for sales, monetary values and opposite operating costs.Firms as well as need to look at the useful or life cycle of the project because that allow determine the total net cash flows for a particular project, the time period go forth also pick out the project evaluators about the time horizon of the project so that other economic and food grocery occurrenceors could be considered as well while making the decision. Firms also need to plan the type of project evaluation techniques that must(prenominal) be apply by the evaluators for instance with projects that sire a short-life span the Pay-Back mode should be utilise to compare the speed with which each project is providing the initial investment. galore(postnominal) of the appraisal techniques must be used together to come to conclusions because of the way the data is presented to evaluators. For instance if a project is big(p) high returns in the later years entirely the overall average return is greater than another project that is giving high returns in the initial years than the evaluators might select the latter project because it is less risky. most-valuable Investment Appraisal Techniques Pay-Back Period This rule simply calculates the time it will take a project to earn back the amount of money that was initially invested.This technique is extremely important in the equation of those projects which choose similar total life only varying cash flows throughout the life cycle. For instance in a scenario where interest rates are rising then evaluators would penury to go for a project which has a lower Pay-Back period. This is because as interest rates subjoin the cost of capital will also annex and the real value of the returns will reduce as we move into the future.Net-Present Value This regularity discounts back all future cash-inflows and cash-outflows to the present values the critical factor in this method is the finis of the dis count/interest rate used to bring back the future values to the present. The important topic with this methodology is that it allows businesses to calculate the real return that they will earn from the project i. e. businesses factor out the rising prices or the nominal return that they might get from a project.Accounting Rate of Return The ARR method provides the evaluators with a percentage that shows a return on the invested amount say for instance if the ARR is 8% then the project is generating 8% returns annually on each dollar invested. This method does not discount the cash flows but it is helpful in the sense that it explains the potency of the project to generate enough cash flow so that a comparison flush toilet be made with other projects on an annual return basis. national Rate of Return This method gives the evaluators with a percentage that shows the projects achieving net present value equal to zero.Essentially, the method calculates the rate at which the projec ts future metrical return (NPV) is equal to the initial invested amount. This method is extensively used by companies that plan on implementing large-scale projects. This rate gives evaluators an idea of what sorts of costs of capital is acceptable and at which levels or rates can we expect a profit. Value Addition from Appraisal Techniques The appraisal techniques discussed preceding(prenominal) are an extremely efficient way of substantiating projects and comparing the viability of different projects.The fact of the matter is that when firms want data for different projects while deciding which project to undertake they must objectively evaluate each project and the appraisal techniques provide an effective way of calculating financial data which can be used for analysis. Project Annual Net Cash flow Initial Investment Cost of great(p) IRR NPV 1 ? 100,000 ? 449,400 14% A B 2 ? 70,000 C 14% 20% D 3 E ? 200,000 F 14% ? 35,624 4 G ? 300,000 12% H ? 39,000 Calculations for A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H The four projects have a useful life of 10 years. For project 1 Total Cash flow for 10 years ?1,000,000. IRR NPV= -? 449,400 + 100,000/ (1+R)1 + 100,000/(1+R)2 ++ 100,000/(1+R)10 = 0. A = 18% IRR = 18%. By using the trial and error technique we metric the IRR to be 18%. NPV -449,400/(1+0. 14)0 + 100,000/(1+0. 14)1 + 100,000/(1+0. 14)2 ++100,000/(1+0. 14)10 = -449,400 + 521,611. 56 = 72,211. 56 B = 72,211. 56 For Project 2 IRR NPV = -Initial Investment (C) + 70,000/(1+0. 2)1 + 70,000/(1+0. 2)2 ++ 70,000/(1+0. 2)10 = 0 C = ? 293,474. NPV = -293,474/(1+0. 14)0 + 70,000/(1+0. 14)1 + 70,000/(1+0. 14)2 +. + 70,000/(1+0. 14)10 = 71,655 D= ? 71,655For Project 3 Annual Net Cash run IRR NPV = -200,000 + E/(1+0. 14)1 + E/(1+0. 14)2 +. + E/(1+0. 14)10 = 0 E = ? 38,343. Cost of Capital 35,624 = -200,000 + 38,343/(1+F)1 + 38,343/(1+F)2 ++ 38,343/(1+F)10 F = 11. 00% through trial and error we calculated the value of cost of capital as 11. 00%. For Project 4 Annual Net Cash Flow 39,000 = -300,000 + G/(1+0. 12)1 + G/(1. 12)2 +. + G/(1. 12)10 G = ? 60,000 IRR (H) NPV= -? 300,000 + 60,000/ (1+R)1 + 60,000/(1+R)2 ++ 60,000/(1+R)10 = 0. H = 15. 1% by trial and error method we calculated the IRR of the 4th project as 15.1%. Project Selection Based on Available information The investment techniques that have been used to evaluate the 4 projects have given us some important factors to consider onwards making the final decision. In light of the data available we suggest that project 3 should be chosen because firstly the initial investment is the lowest amongst all the four projects. second another important factor is that the difference minglight-emitting diode with the cost of capital and the IRR is less than some of the other projects more importantly the IRR is 14% which is the lowest amongst all the four projects.This means that if project 3 is engage the company the is likely to achieve quick returns and nonetheless if the performance of the project is n ot outstanding collectible to external factors the company can make substantial returns from the project. The critical factor is that project 3 can bring in returns far more quickly than other available projects as any returns beyond the 14% mark would be real returns on the investment. Another significant factor would be the rescue money from the initial capital that can be used for other projects with similar or even interrupt returns prospects.The cost of capital for this project is also the lowest amongst all other projects this is also an index that convert can be absorbed by the company. With project 3 we see that the annual cash flows are amongst the highest if we use the annual cash flow/ initial investment basis for comparison mingled with all the four projects. This also indicates that project 3 is more viable than some of the other projects such(prenominal) as project 1. The only criticism of project 3 is that the gap between cost of capital and IRR is smaller than lets say from project 1 or project 2.This creates a potential problem if and when interest rates start to increase then the project might become non-profitable in terms of real rate of return. Conclusion The investment appraisal techniques have become an essential methodology to solve and answer critical questions when it comes to selecting major expansion projects. When companies go to venture capitalists or other financial institutions they must fulfill certain criteria before macrocosm given the amount of money they are life for.Even in the investor industry most investors are required to provide there rate of return requirements before companies or other financial institutions could make tailored products for the investors. It must be emphasized here that companies must understand that other economic data is crucial in relation with the financial data that these appraisal techniques provide. Bibliography The Institute of Chartered Accountants England and Wales, Investment Ap praisal Techniques, viewed February 5, 2010 http//financial. kaplan.co. uk/Documents/ICAEW/MI_Ch3_p. pdf Schuster, Northcott, Gotze, 2008. Investment Appraisal Methods and Models, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg Martina Rohrich, 2007, Fundamentals of Investment Appraisal, Oldenbourg Course acetify4you. co, Advantages and disadvantages of different appraisal techniques viewed February 5, 2010 http//www. coursework4you. co. uk/essays-and-dissertations/finance-and-accounting/investment-appraisals/P_F_61_Advantages_and_disadvantages_of_different_investment_appraisals_techniques. phpCourse Work 2 Introduction The dynamics of any industry determine what factors will bushel the want and supply of a particular good or service being bought or sold in that particular market. Some of the major factors that affect the lease for most kinds of products or function include consumer tastes, income levels, availableness of substitute goods and their prices, availability and prices of comple ting goods, future price expectations and the general level of literacy of the population and population growth.The other aspect of any market would be the supply side how do the supply side factors impact the market for goods or services. For instance some major factors include technical advancements, cost of production, the number of suppliers and regulatory framework. A combination of these beseech side and supply side factors determines the prices that markets ultimately charge from consumers given that the markets are allowed to function in a free market setting. Technology Market In particular the information processing system MarketWhen we discuss the computer market in isolation we must understand that it is affected greatly by the overall technology market which plays a critical role in determining which new products and services will be offered by these computers and how will these computers be manufactured in the future. Technology has revolutionized the way we do busi ness and other activities around the world. A significant contribution of technological revolution is the machine we watchword a computer. From the time of the first computers and up till today we have witnessed remarkable change.For starters lets just talk about the change in size of the computers. The point here is that ever since the approaching of the computing machine and later the full fledged computer we have since tremendous amount of changes that have occurred along the revolution. These changes have had an impact on both the price of the computer and also on the cost of production of a modern day computer. Demand Side Factors The growth in different technology products such as hand held thingmabobs, laptops, desk top computers, I-pods, I-pads, E-books, and PDAs are some examples of what the consumer of todays world has been purchase and accepting for some time.The important factor here is that most technological products are not market oriented rather they are product- led or developed with a perspective of generating enough interest and demand from the market as opposed to the idea of providing products which are required by the market. The demand for computers in ad hoc can be divided into two broad categories firstly the demand from the corporate world or offices and secondly from home users who demand desktops. When companies around the globe started to employ and use desktop computers in the mid-eighties and 1990s one could see a revolution taking place that would forever change the piece of work.These companies converted there existing manual operations on to computers and resultantly we saw dramatic changes in readiness levels and the ability of companies to become more productive increased many folds. (Samuelson, 2005) This change in the way companies work led to computers becoming a need for majority of the companies in different sectors such as manufacturing, services and elemental related industries. The computers, especially deskto p computers had become a necessity for companies by mid-90s and onwards. This factor had made computers an important part of any firms capital requirements.(Samuelson, 2005) As far as the households were concerned computers soon after they were being mass-produced in the 80s become a necessity because of the change in the societal factors and requirements at workplace and schools demanded households to have computers at home. During these similar times (80s and 90s) income levels of the middle class households also increased on periodic basis. This was especially the case in the developing countries such as India, China and Brazil. The income levels were also rising in the developed countries which also warranted the increase in demand for computers.We saw that through the 1990s and 2000s the demand for complementary goods and services to the computers also increased. For instance the net profit warranted the need for routers, wireless networks and other devices that were mandator y for office work and households. Similarly camera equipment that could connect them to PCs, mobile cables and other many products and services that were used in participation with the PCs were being increasingly demanded. We also saw the strength in the demand for substitutes and a consistent fall in their prices.For example a direct substitute of a computer is a handheld device which could be used for most of the purposes that a computer might offer. Even though these substitutes were available until now people ensured that they have at least one personal computer. This strength in demand is a result of the many features that a computer provides over some of its substitutes such as printing options, scanning, and telly conference and so on. These added advantages and features have made computers an absolute necessity for the modern home.Another important factor that has play a critical role in increasing the demand for computers is the future expectations of technology and unce rtainty. Because people feel that in the near future more emphasis will be given on efficiency and productivity it is imperative to keep up to date with the present technology. The combination of all these factors have created a scenario where by computers have become a part of the daily life of all individuals of the modern age. The internet has only helped the cause of the computers and we see that computers are an essential part of the workplace as well as the home of a particular individual.Supply-Side Factors The technological leap in the latter half of the last coulomb has changed the way work takes place in a typical office of a manufacturing plant today. The contend is simple the computer and technologies related to the computer. Not only have computers made it easier for companies to make products faster but they have also made companies more flexible and technology hungry. The supply of computers has been increasing at a great pace not only because of high demand but als o due to technological changes that are taking place at all times.Between 1990 and 2002 there was a large decline in the prices of computer chips this in part explains why computers prices were still falling even though demand go along to rise during that period. An important factor to understand here is that after the initial increases in the demand in the early 90s soon there was a surplus scenario in the chip market secondly, the rapid change in technology meant that older machines were quickly becoming obsolete hence pushing the prices even boost down. (Lipsey and Chyrstal, 2007) Source http//www.oup. com/uk/orc/bin/9780199286416/01student/interactive/lipsey_extra_ch03/page_01. htm In the diagram above we see that the prices of chips continued to fall between 1990 and 2002 except for the 92-95 period when the prices actually went up slightly the reason for the rise could be explained as the rupture in the demand curve to the right as a result of the increase in the demand for complementary software that required high speed computer usage during this time such as multimedia programs or other gaming and educational programs.The decline in the chip prices also explains the fact that cost of production was also declining rapidly during this time and that more and more suppliers of computers were entering the market. This increased argument for customers meant that prices had an even bigger drop. The increased competition also meant that firms that produce computers try to compete on cost as well as brand image. In an overall analysis of the supply-side of the computer and technology market we would say that prices have had a consistent downward pressure because of declining cost of production and a unremitting and rapid change in technology.There are a number of other important factors such as the availability of other important devices that have caused the prices of computers to fall down such as cheaper motherboards and RAMs. (Lipsey & Chrystal, 2007) C ompetition is also an important factor in determining the quality and prices of products such as computers. We see that competition has wedged cost of production by a large amount many firms that manufacture computer and related devices have introduced more and better technologies that are cheaper and faster in processing data.In a lot of ways the market expects and demands computers which are cheaper and faster as we move into the future. This is because businesses and individuals know that computers are meant to reduce the time interpreted to complete work and achieve this objective in a cost effective way therefore more and more people and businesses demand cheaper computers. Market Scenario Demand and Supply The market situation is such that the production of computers and the pace of technology have outpaced the overall growth in demand for computers.More importantly the increase in the demand for computers has been in phases when a shift in demand has caused a slight increas e in computer prices. The decline in prices is also evident because of transfer of technology amongst different regions of the globe. Many of the developing countries have received technology and cheaper computers from the developed world which has further increased the process of better technological innovation and ever declining prices of computers.There is also a case of understanding that computers are a type of machine that must be renovated or renewed periodically therefore many companies are unstrained to sell them at lower prices knowing that costumers will buy new machines in the future and they will invest in newer technology. Therefore computer manufacturers have been pursuing brand holding strategies which includes selling computers to buyers at competitive rates.